Besides influences from the immediate environment such as education and school, the culture in which you grow up also influences the development of your personality. The distinction between individualistic and collectivistic culture is particularly important. In individualistic cultures, such as the US and European countries, the emphasis is on the development of the individual. In collectivist cultures, such as Indonesia and Panama, much value is attached to the group interest.

Individualist cultures stimulate the development of qualities such as self-confidence, independence and assertiveness; in collectivist cultures this is particularly true of qualities such as friendliness, modesty and loyalty. This may lead Europeans, for example, to believe that Japanese react shyly and submissive. Japanese, on the other hand, may find Europeans bold and selfish.

Among bilingual people shows that cultural influences partly pass through language. The personality of bilingual people also depends on the language they speak. This study looked at Mexicans and Americans who speak both Spanish and English fluently. In general, Mexicans are less extroverted, a little less agreeable and less conscientious than Americans. Remarkably, if a bilingual Mexican or American speaks English, they reacted more extroverted, agreeable and conscientious than when they speak Spanish. It appears that by speaking another language, you also become someone else. You adapt your personality to be more in line with the culture that belongs to the language you speak.

The lexical hypothesis

The lexical hypothesis states that all personality traits have rooted in a given language. Over the course of time, people come up with words to describe personality traits and to talk about them. The lexical hypothesis therefore states that the more important a characteristic is considered, the more words (synonyms) will exist for it. By studying a language you can find out which traits matter most in a certain language area, often a country. Moreover, you can compare languages with each other. You can then find out which traits are considered important in all language regions (or countries), and which traits are seen as important in one language area but not so much in another.

Research using the lexical hypothesis

Researchers who take the lexical hypothesis as a starting point, are faced with a huge task. By means of dictionaries they have to try to group all words in a language that describe characteristics of people into clusters. They then do this for multiple different languages. Recent lexical research3, in which twelve languages were studied, shows that at least three clusters of personality traits arise. These are the clusters of extraversion, conscientiousness and agreeableness.

In the description of the Big Five personality theory below you can read more about what these clusters exactly mean and what characteristics they include.

Big five personality theory

In the past, researchers have debated fiercely on exactly how many personality traits truly exist. Early researchers such as Allport suggested as many as 4,000 different and distinct personality traits, others such as Raymond Cattell proposed only sixteen. Today, the majority of personality researchers support the Five Factor theory of personality, which describes five broad personality dimensions that compose human personality - These are:

• Openness

• Extraversion

• Agreeableness

• Conscientiousness

• Neuroticism

Some things on personality disorders and illnesses

There are several factors that may cause personality disorders, or signal the presence or onset.

• Genetic predisposition

• Verbal abuse by parents or colleagues

• Your relationships with your peers

• Childhood trauma

• High sensitivity (sound, smell, emotions)

Some personality traits are connected to certain illnesses neurotic personality traits and five illnesses. These are headaches, asthma, arthritis, peptic ulcers and heart disease. Shyness is supposed to be connected to a shorter life span!

Openness to experience

Openness is a general appreciation for art, emotion, adventure, unusual ideas, imagination, curiosity, and variety of experience. People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, open to emotion, sensitive to beauty and willing to try new things. They tend to be, when compared to closed people, more creative and more aware of their feelings. They are also more likely to hold unconventional beliefs. High openness can be perceived as unpredictability or lack of focus, and more likely to engage in risky behaviour or drug taking. Moreover, individuals with high openness are said to pursue self-actualization specifically by seeking out intense, euphoric experiences. Conversely, those with low openness seek to gain fulfillment through perseverance and are characterized as pragmatic and data-driven—sometimes even perceived to be dogmatic and closed-minded. Some disagreement remains about how to interpret and contextualize the openness factor.

Sample items

• I have excellent ideas.

• I am quick to understand things.

• I use difficult words.

• I am full of ideas.

• I am not interested in abstractions. (reversed)

• I do not have a good imagination. (reversed)

• I have difficulty understanding abstract ideas. (reversed)

Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a tendency to display self-discipline, act dutifully, and strive for achievement against measures or outside expectations. It is related to the way in which people control, regulate, and direct their impulses. High conscientiousness is often perceived as being stubborn and focused. Low conscientiousness is associated with flexibility and spontaneity, but can also appear as sloppiness and lack of reliability. High scores on conscientiousness indicate a preference for planned rather than spontaneous behavior. The average level of conscientiousness rises among young adults and then declines among older adults.

Sample items

• I am always prepared.

• I pay attention to details.

• I get chores done right away.

• I like order.

• I follow a schedule.

• I am exacting in my work.

• I never forget my belongings.

• I always end up being helpful to most things.

• I often remember where I last put my things.

• I give attention to my duties. 

Extraversion

Extraversion is characterized by breadth of activities (as opposed to depth), surgency from external activity/situations, and energy creation from external means. The trait is marked by pronounced engagement with the external world. Extraverts enjoy interacting with people, and are often perceived as full of energy. They tend to be enthusiastic, action-oriented individuals. They possess high group visibility, like to talk, and assert themselves. Extraverted people may appear more dominant in social settings, as opposed to introverted people in this setting.

Introverts have lower social engagement and energy levels than extraverts. They tend to seem quiet, low-key, deliberate, and less involved in the social world. Their lack of social involvement should not be interpreted as shyness or depression; instead they are more independent of their social world than extraverts. Introverts need less stimulation, and more time alone than extraverts. This does not mean that they are unfriendly or antisocial; rather, they are reserved in social situations.

Generally, people are a combination of extraversion and introversion, with personality psychologist Eysenck suggesting that these traits are connected somehow to our central nervous system.

Sample items

• I am the life of the party.

• I don't mind being the center of attention.

• I feel comfortable around people.

• I start conversations.

• I talk to a lot of different people at parties.

• I don't talk a lot. (reversed)

• I think a lot before I speak or act. (reversed)

• I don't like to draw attention to myself. (reversed)

• I am quiet around strangers. (reversed)

• I have no intention of talking in large crowds. (reversed)

Agreeableness

The agreeableness trait reflects individual differences in general concern for social harmony. Agreeable individuals value getting along with others. They are generally considerate, kind, generous, trusting and trustworthy, helpful, and willing to compromise their interests with others. Agreeable people also have an optimistic view of human nature.

Disagreeable individuals place self-interest above getting along with others. They are generally unconcerned with others' well-being, and are less likely to extend themselves for other people. Sometimes their skepticism about others' motives causes them to be suspicious, unfriendly, and uncooperative. Low agreeableness personalities are often competitive or challenging people, which can be seen as argumentative or untrustworthy.

Because agreeableness is a social trait, research has shown that one's agreeableness positively correlates with the quality of relationships with one's team members. Agreeableness also positively predicts transformational leadership skills. In a study conducted among 169 participants in leadership positions in a variety of professions, individuals were asked to take a personality test and have two evaluations completed by directly supervised subordinates. Leaders with high levels of agreeableness were more likely to be considered transformational rather than transactional. Although the relationship was not strong, (r=0.32, β=0.28, p<0.01) it was the strongest of the Big Five traits. However, the same study showed no predictive power of leadership effectiveness as evaluated by the leader's direct supervisor.

Conversely, agreeableness has been found to be negatively related to transactional leadership in the military. A study of Asian military units showed leaders with a high level of agreeableness to be more likely to receive a low rating for transformational leadership skills. Therefore, with further research, organizations may be able to determine an individual's potential for performance based on their personality traits. For instance, in their journal article "Which Personality Attributes Are Most Important in the Workplace?" Paul Sackett and Philip Walmsley claim that conscientiousness and agreeableness are “important to success across many different jobs."

Sample items

• I am interested in people.

• I sympathize with others' feelings.

• I have a soft heart.

• I take time out for others.

• I feel others' emotions.

• I make people feel at ease.

• I am not really interested in others. (reversed)

• I insult people. (reversed)

• I am not interested in other people's problems. (reversed)

• I feel little concern for others. (reversed)

Neuroticism

Neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anger, anxiety, or depression. It is sometimes called emotional instability, or is reversed and referred to as emotional stability. According to Eysenck's (1967) theory of personality, neuroticism is interlinked with low tolerance for stress or aversive stimuli. Neuroticism is a classic temperament trait that has been studied in temperament research for decades, before it was adapted by the FFM. Those who score high in neuroticism are emotionally reactive and vulnerable to stress, also tending to be flippant in the way they express emotion. They are more likely to interpret ordinary situations as threatening, and minor frustrations as hopelessly difficult. Their negative emotional reactions tend to persist for unusually long periods of time, which means they are often in a bad mood. For instance, neuroticism is connected to a pessimistic approach toward work, confidence that work impedes personal relationships, and apparent anxiety linked with work. Furthermore, those who score high on neuroticism may display more skin-conductance reactivity than those who score low on neuroticism. These problems in emotional regulation can diminish the ability of a person scoring high on neuroticism to think clearly, make decisions, and cope effectively with stress. Lacking contentment in one's life achievements can correlate with high neuroticism scores and increase one's likelihood of falling into clinical depression. Moreover, individuals high in neuroticism tend to experience more negative life events, but neuroticism also changes in response to positive and negative life experiences. Also, individuals with higher levels of neuroticism tend to have worse psychological well being.

At the other end of the scale, individuals who score low in neuroticism are less easily upset and are less emotionally reactive. They tend to be calm, emotionally stable, and free from persistent negative feelings. Freedom from negative feelings does not mean that low-scorers experience a lot of positive feelings.

Neuroticism is similar but not identical to being neurotic in the Freudian sense (i.e., neurosis.) Some psychologists prefer to call neuroticism by the term emotional instability to differentiate it from the term neurotic in a career test.

Sample items

• I get irritated easily.

• I get stressed out easily.

• I get upset easily.

• I have frequent mood swings.

• I worry about things.

• I am much more anxious than most people.

• I am relaxed most of the time. (reversed)

• I seldom feel blue. (reversed)